A Review of the fish oil extraction methods and omega 3 concentration techniques

Document Type : Complete scientific research article

Authors

1 Researcher in the field of biotechnology, University of Tehran

2 PhD graduate of sea food science and fish processing, Protein Biotechnology Laboratory, Faculty of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

3 Full Professor of Biochemistry, University of Tehran

4 Chemical engineering student, University of Tehran

Abstract

Background and objectives: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are omega-3 fatty acids that play a remarkable role in the prevention and treatment of diseases. Various reports have noted the preventive and therapeutic effects of omega 3 fatty acids on inflammatory diseases such as asthma, as well as cardiovascular diseases, oxidative stress-related diseases including Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD), together with rheumatoid arthritis, and mental and psychiatric disorders. Moreover, these fatty acids have revealed some preventive effects against cancer and fatty liver disease. Since polyunsaturated fatty acids are not capable to be synthesized in the human body, also humans diet is mostly provided by vegetable oils that contain a high level of omega-6 fatty acids, accordingly, they should be supplied by food sources. Globally, marine resources, especially fish oil, are widely used, as the main providers of these fatty acids. Additionally, the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA, and DHA differ based on the species of the fish. Moreover, the main sources of fish oil are pelagic species, namely salmon, tuna, anchovies, herring, and caplin, which have fatty meat and are suitable to be used for the production of fish feed and fish oil. Alternatively, fish wastes can be used to supply fish oil.

Methods: The first and most important step for the purification of omega-3 fatty acids is the extraction of fish oil. In the following, the concentration of omega-3 fatty acids can be done in the extracted fish oil. So far, various methods such as alkaline digestion, Bligh and Dyer method, extraction with isopropyl solvent of alcohol, and... have been reported. But, in this review article, different methods of fish oil extraction including Wet pressing (WP), Cold extraction, enzymatic extraction, and Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), also miscellaneous technologies of omega 3 concentration including Urea complexation (UC), Supercritical Fluid Chromatography (SFC), molecular distillation (MD), and Enzymatic extraction has been investigated.

Conclusion: Due to the growing consumption of omega-3 fatty acids as one of the most important dietary and pharmaceutical supplements, more research and production are needed in this area. Among the methods mentioned above, the wet pressing (WP) method is used as an industrial method for fish oil production. Also, molecular distillation (MD) is a more common and industrial method for the production of omega-3 fatty acids in the world. The concentrated omega-3 fatty acids are mainly in two forms, namely, ethyl esters (mostly in molecular distillation, SFE, and SFC methods) and Triacylglycerols (TAG), the latter have more bioavailability

Keywords


  1. Petrovic, S., and Arsic, A. 2016. Fatty Acids: Fatty Acids. Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 623–631.
  1. Gerling, C. J., Mukai, K., Chabowski, A., Heigenhauser, G. J. F., Holloway, G. P., Spriet, L. L., and Jannas-Vela, S. 2019. Incorporation of omega-3 fatty acids into human skeletal muscle sarcolemmal and mitochondrial membranes following 12 weeks of fish oil supplementation. Frontiers in Physiology, 10(MAR), 348.

3.Calder, P.C. 2013. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology? British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 75(3), 645–662.

  1. Ishihara, T., Yoshida, M., and Arita, M. 2019. Omega-3 fatty acid-derived mediators that control inflammation and tissue homeostasis. International Immunology, 31(9), 559–567.
  2. Meital, L.T., Windsor, M.T., Perissiou, M., Schulze, K., Magee, R., Kuballa, A., Golledge, J., Bailey, T.G., Askew, C.D., and Russell, F.D. 2019. Omega-3 fatty acids decrease oxidative stress and inflammation in macrophages from patients with small abdominal aortic aneurysm. Scientific Reports, 9(1).
  3. Heshmati, J. 2021. Effect of omega-3 fatty acid supplementation on gene expression of inflammation, oxidative stress and cardiometabolic parameters: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Functional Foods, 85.
  4. Miralles-Pérez, B., Méndez, L., Nogués, M.R., Sánchez-Martos, V., Fortuño-Mar, À., Ramos-Romero, S., Hereu, M., Medina, I., and Romeu, M. 2021. Effects of a Fish Oil Rich in Docosahexaenoic Acid on Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Oxidative Stress in Healthy Rats. Marine Drugs, 19(10).
  5. Haq, M., Park, S.K., Kim, M.J., Cho, Y. J., and Chun, B.S. 2018. Modifications of Atlantic salmon by-product oil for obtaining different ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids concentrates: An approach to comparative analysis. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 26(2), 545–556.
  6. Šimat, V., Vlahovic, J., Soldo, B., Skroza, D., Ljubenkov, I., and Mekinic, I. G. 2019. Production and Refinement of Omega-3 Rich Oils from Processing By-Products of Farmed Fish Species. Foods 2019, Vol. 8, Page 125, 8(4), 125.

10.Ghaly, R.V. 2013. Extraction of Oil from Mackerel Fish Processing Waste using Alcalase Enzyme. Enzyme Engineering, 02(02).

11.Li, Z., and Srigley, C.T. 2017. A novel method for the quantification of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in gummy dietary supplements. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 56.

12.BLIGH, E.G., and DYER, W.J. 1959. A rapid method of total lipid extraction and purification. Canadian Journal of Biochemistry and Physiology, 37(8), 911–917.

13.Li, X., Cao, J., Bai, X., and Zhang, F. 2018. Chemical composition and thermal properties of Tilapia oil extracted by different methods. International Journal of Food Properties, 21(1), 1575–1585.

14.Fiori, L., Volpe, M., Lucian, M., Anesi, A., Manfrini, M., and Guella, G. 2017. From Fish Waste to Omega-3 Concentrates in a Biorefinery Concept. Waste and Biomass Valorization, 8(8), 2609–2620.

15.Abdulkadir, M., Abubakar, G.I., and Mohammed, a. 2010. Production and characterization of oil from fishes. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 5(7).

16.Fu, H., Li, M., Ni, R., and Lo, Y.M. 2018. Enzymatic catalysis for sustainable production of high omega-3 triglyceride oil using imidazolium-based ionic liquids. Food Science and Nutrition, 6(8), 2020–2027.

17.Taati, M.M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, M. 2018. Investigation on fish oil extraction by enzyme extraction and wet reduction methods and quality analysis. AACL Bioflux, 11(1).

18.Rubio-Rodríguez, N., de Diego, S. M., Beltrán, S., Jaime, I., Sanz, M.T., and Rovira, J. 2012. Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from fish by-products: A comparison with other extraction methods Supercritical fluid extraction of fish oil from fish by-products: a1 comparison with other extraction methods. Journal of Food Engineering, 109(2), 238–248.

19.Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fishery Industries Division. 1986. The production of fish meal and oil. 63.

20.Adeniyi, O.D., and Bawa, A.A. 2006. Mackerel (Scomber Scrombrus) Oil Extraction and Evaluation as Raw Materials for Industrial Utilization. Leonardo Journal of Sciences Issue, 8.

21.Taati, M.M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, M. 2017. Extraction of oil from tuna by-product by supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and comparison with wet reduction method. AACL Bioflux, 10(6).

22.Alfio, V.G., Manzo, C., and Micillo, R. 2021. From Fish Waste to Value: An Overview of the Sustainable Recovery of Omega-3 for Food Supplements. Molecules 2021, Vol. 26, Page 1002, 26(4), 1002.

23.Sayyad, R., and Ghomi, M. 2017. Evaluation of fatty acid profile, color characteristics, oxidative quality and stability of common Kilka (Clupeonella cultriventris caspia) oil obtained by various extraction techniques. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 54(6), 1377.

24.Taati, M.M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, M. 2018. Influence of Different Extraction Methods on Chemical Components of Oil Obtained from By-products of Tuna Canning Factories. Journal of Fisheries Science and Technology. 7(1):157-165. (In Persian)

25.Taati, M.M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, M. 2017. Assessment the Potential of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide on Extraction of Oil from Tuna By-products and Comparison with Wet Pressing Method.  Journal of Fisheries Science and Technology. 70(1):70-84. (In Persian)

26.Liaset, B., Julshamn, K., and Espe, M. 2003. Chemical composition and theoretical nutritional evaluation of the produced fractions from enzymic hydrolysis of salmon frames with ProtamexTM. Process Biochemistry, 38(12), 1747–1759.

27.Castejón, N., and Señoráns, F. J. 2020. Enzymatic modification to produce health-promoting lipids from fish oil, algae and other new omega-3 sources: A review. New Biotechnology, 57, 45–54.

28.Qi-yuan, Jun-qing, and Xiao-ge. 2016. Optimization of enzymatic fish oil extraction from mackerel viscera by response surface methodology. International Food Research Journal, 23(3), 992–997.

29.Taati Keley, M.M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, S.M. 2017. Assessment the Potential of Supercritical Carbon Dioxide on Extraction of Oil from Tuna By-products and Comparison with Wet Pressing Method. Journal of Fisheries, 70(1), 70–84.

30.Margotta, M., and Guida, D. 2020. Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Lycopene and Omega-3. Wseas Transactions On Biology And Biomedicine, 17.

31.Fiori, L., Solana, M., Tosi, P., Manfrini, M., Strim, C., and Guella, G. 2012. Lipid profiles of oil from trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) heads, spines and viscera: trout by-products as a possible source of omega-3 lipids? Food Chemistry, 134(2), 1088–1095.

32.Parisotto, E.B., Michielin, E.M.Z., Biscaro, F., Ferreira, S.R.S., Filho, D. W., and Pedrosa, R.C. 2012. The antitumor activity of extracts from Cordia verbenacea D.C. obtained by supercritical fluid extraction. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 61, 101–107.

33.Santos, D.N.E, Takahashi, E.H., Verde, A.B., and Oliveira, A.L. de. 2016. Supercritical Extraction of Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) Liver Oil as a New Source of Squalene. Food and Public Health, 6(6), 157–164.

34.Prieto, C., and Calvo, L. 2017. The encapsulation of low viscosity omega-3 rich fish oil in polycaprolactone by supercritical fluid extraction of emulsions. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 128, 227–234.

35.Belayneh, H.D., Wehling, R.L., Cahoon, E., and Ciftci, O. N. 2015. Extraction of omega-3-rich oil from Camelina sativa seed using supercritical carbon dioxide. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 104.

36.Triana-Maldonado, D.M., Torijano-Gutiérrez, S.A., and Giraldo-Estrada, C. 2017. Supercritical CO2 extraction of oil and omega-3 concentrate from Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) from Antioquia, Colombia. Grasas y Aceites, 68(1).

37.Chen, C.R., Lin, D.M., Chang, C.M.J., Chou, H.N., and Wu, J.J. 2017. Supercritical carbon dioxide anti-solvent crystallization of fucoxanthin chromatographically purified from Hincksia mitchellae P.C. Silva. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 119, 1–8.

38.Passos, C.P., Silva, R.M., da Silva, F.A., Coimbra, M.A., and Silva, C.M. 2009. Enhancement of the supercritical fluid extraction of grape seed oil by using enzymatically pre-treated seed. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 48(3), 225–229.

39.Knez, Markočič, E., Leitgeb, M., Primožič, M., Knez Hrnčič, M., and Škerget, M. 2014. Industrial applications of supercritical fluids: A review. Energy, 77, 235–243.

40.Gandhi, K., Arora, S., and Kumar, A. 2017. Industrial applications of supercritical fluid extraction: a review. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 5(3).

41.Siscovick, D.S., Barringer, T. A., Fretts, A.M., Wu, J.H.Y., Lichtenstein, A.H., Costello, R.B., Kris-Etherton, P.M., Jacobson, T.A., Engler, M. B., Alger, H. M., Appel, L.J., and Mozaffarian, D. 2017. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (Fish Oil) Supplementation and the Prevention of Clinical Cardiovascular Disease: A Science Advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 135(15), e867–e884.

42.Haq, M., Park, S.K., Kim, M.J., Cho, Y.J., and Chun, B.S. 2018. Modifications of Atlantic salmon by-product oil for obtaining different ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids concentrates: An approach to comparative analysis. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis, 26(2), 545–556.

43.Magallanes, L.M., Tarditto, L.V., Grosso, N.R., Pramparo, M.C., and Gayol, M.F. 2019. Highly concentrated omega-3 fatty acid ethyl esters by urea complexation and molecular distillation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 99(2), 877–884. https://doi.org/10.1002/JSFA.9258

44.Pateiro, M., Domínguez, R., Varzakas, T., Munekata, P. E. S., Movilla Fierro, E., and Lorenzo, J. M. 2021. Omega-3-Rich Oils from Marine Side Streams and Their Potential Application in Food. Marine Drugs, 19(5).

45.Pieck, C.A., Crampon, C., Charton, F., and Badens, E. 2017. A new model for the fractionation of fish oil FAEEs. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 120, 258–265.

46.Taati Keley, M., Shabanpour, B., and Ojagh, M. 2018. Production of DHA- High Dosage Fish Oil from Tuna by-Products by Coupling of Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) and Supercritical Fluid Chromatography (SFC). Iranian Journal of  Nutrition Sciences and Food  Technology, 13(2), 31–40. (In Persian)

47.Hwang, L.S., and Liang, J.H. 2001. Fractionation of urea-pretreated squid visceral oil ethyl esters. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society 2001 78:5, 78(5), 473–476.

48.Ratnayake, W.M.N., Olsson, B., Matthews, D., and Ackman, R.G. 1988. Preparation of Omega-3 PUFA Concentrates from Fish Oils via Urea Complexation. Fett Wissenschaft Technologie/Fat Science Technology, 90(10), 381–386.

49.Smith, A.E. 1952. The crystal structure of the urea–hydrocarbon complexes. Acta Crystallographica, 5(2).

50.Liu, S., Zhang, C., Hong, P., and Ji, H. 2006. Concentration of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) of tuna oil by urea complexation: optimization of process parameters. Journal of Food Engineering, 73(3), 203–209.

51.Arabian, D., and Amiri, P. 2020. Improving Recovery Process of Omega-3 Fatty Acids from a Native Species of Chlorella vulgaris Using Integrated Method. Applied Food Biotechnology, 7(4).

52.Taati, M.M. 2018. Comparison of the effect of different methods of production on efficiency and quality of the fish oil and then EPA, DHA from by-products of tuna canning factories. Ph.D. thesis. (In Persian)

53.Rubio-Rodríguez, N., Beltrán, S., Jaime, I., de Diego, S. M., Sanz, M. T., and Carballido, J. R. 2010. Production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrates: A review. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 11(1), 1–12.

54.Dołowy, M., and Pyka, A. 2015. Chromatographic methods in the separation of long-chain mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Journal of Chemistry, 2015.

55.Melgosa, R., Sanz, M.T., and Beltrán, S. 2021. Supercritical CO2 processing of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids – Towards a biorefinery for fish waste valorization. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 169, 105121.

56.Pettinello, G., Bertucco, A., Pallado, P., and Stassi, A. 2000. Production of EPA enriched mixtures by supercritical fluid chromatography: from the laboratory scale to the pilot plant. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 19(1), 51–60.

57.Espinosa, S., Diaz, M.S., and Brignole, E.A. 2008. Food additives obtained by supercritical extraction from natural sources. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 45(2), 213–219.

58.Montañés, F., and Tallon, S. 2018. Supercritical fluid chromatography as a technique to fractionate high-valued compounds from lipids. Separations, 5(3).

59.Rossi, P., Gayol, M. F., Renaudo, C., Pramparo, M.C., Nepote, V., and Grosso, N.R. 2014. The use of artificial neural network modeling to represent the process of concentration by molecular distillation of omega-3 from squid oil. Grasas y Aceites, 65(4).

60.Rossi, P., Grosso, N.R., Pramparo, M. del C., and Nepote, V. 2012. Fractionation and concentration of omega-3 by molecular distillation. In Eicosapentaenoic Acid: Sources, Health Effects and Role in Disease Prevention.

61.Cvengroš, J., Pollák, S., Micov, M., and Lutišan, J. 2001. Film wiping in the molecular evaporator. Chemical Engineering Journal, 81(1–3), 9–14.

62.Zhang, G., Liu, J., and Liu, Y. 2013. Concentration of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids from Oil of Schizochytrium limacinum by Molecular Distillation: Optimization of Technological Conditions. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 52(10), 3918–3925.

63.Gupta, R., Gupta, N., and Rathi, P. 2004. Bacterial lipases: an overview of production, purification and biochemical properties. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 64(6), 763–781.

64.Namal Senanayake, S.P.J. 2010. Methods of concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids. Separation, Extraction and Concentration Processes in the Food, Beverage and Nutraceutical Industries, 483–505.

65.Shahidi, F., and Wanasundara, U. N. 1998. Omega-3 fatty acid concentrates: nutritional aspects and production technologies. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 9(6), 230–240.

66.Aarthy, M., Saravanan, P., Ayyadurai, N., Gowthaman, M. K., and Kamini, N. R. 2016. A two step process for production of omega 3-polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrates from sardine oil using Cryptococcus sp. MTCC 5455 lipase. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 125, 25–33.

67.Valverde, L.M., Moreno, P.A.G., Cerdán, L. E., López, E.N., López, B.C., and Medina, A.R. 2014. Concentration of docosahexaenoic and eicosapentaenoic acids by enzymatic alcoholysis with different acyl-acceptors. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 91, 163–173.

68.Rubio-Rodríguez, N., Beltrán, S., Jaime, I., de Diego, S.M., Sanz, M.T., and Carballido, J.R. 2010. Production of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrates: A review. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 11(1), 1–12.

69.Lin, T.J., Chen, S.W., and Chang, A.C. 2006. Enrichment of n-3 PUFA contents on triglycerides of fish oil by lipase-catalyzed trans-esterification under supercritical conditions. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 29(1–2), 27–34.

70.De Meester, F., Watson, R.R., and Zibadi, S. 2013. Omega-6/3 fatty acids: Functions, sustainability strategies and perspectives. Omega-6/3 Fatty Acids: Functions, Sustainability Strategies and Perspectives, 1–427.

71.Hoshino, T., Yamane, T., and Shimizu, S. 1990. Selective Hydrolysis of Fish Oil by Lipase to Concentrate n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids1. Biol. Chem, 54(6), 1459–1467.

72.Valverde, L.M., Moreno, P.A.G., Callejón, M.J.J., Cerdán, L.E., and Medina, A.R. 2013. Concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) by selective alcoholysis catalyzed by lipases. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 115(9), 990–1004.

73.Bhandari, K., Chaurasia, S. P., Dalai, A. K., and Gupta, A. 2013. Purification of Free DHA by Selective Esterification of Fatty Acids from Tuna Oil Catalyzed by Rhizopus oryzae Lipase. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 90(11), 1637–1644.

74.Solaesa, Á.G., Sanz, M.T., Falkeborg, M., Beltrán, S., and Guo, Z. 2016. Production and concentration of monoacylglycerols rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids by enzymatic glycerolysis and molecular distillation. Food Chemistry, 190, 960–967.

75.Nevigato, T., Masci, M., and Caproni, R. 2021. Quality of fish-oil-based dietary supplements available on the italian market: A preliminary study. Molecules, 26(16).

76.Sottero, B., Leonarduzzi, G., Testa, G., Gargiulo, S., Poli, G., and Biasi, F. 2019. Lipid Oxidation Derived Aldehydes and Oxysterols Between Health and Disease. In European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology (Vol. 121, Issue 1).

77.Heller, M., Gemming, L., Tung, C., and Grant, R. 2019. Oxidation of fish oil supplements in Australia. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 70(5), 540–550.

78.Rizliya, V., and Mendis, E. 2013. Biological, physical, and chemical properties of fish oil and industrial applications. Seafood Processing By-Products: Trends and Applications, 9781461495901, 285–313.

79.Chmeisser, E., Goessler, W., Kienzl, N., and Francesconi, K.A. 2005. Direct measurement of lipid-soluble arsenic species in biological samples with HPLC-ICPMS. The Analyst, 130(6), 948–955.